Absolute and Comparative Advantage

The Trade Networks And The Persian Civilizations - 1123 Words

1.Which had a larger impact on the Persian civilizations - trade networks, diffusion of food and goods, spread of religion, or spread of disease? Please explain all 4 and choose one overall. I think the trade networks had a larger impact on the Persian civilizations. I believe the promotion of trade and economic integration by building and maintaining roads and issuing currencies determines the empire s success. The trade network linked lands from India to Egypt in a vast commercial zone. Various regions of the Persian empires contributed to the larger imperial economy and specialization of production. The trade growth was promoted by promoted by: relative political stability, standardizing coinage, cities establishing banks to†¦show more content†¦Therefore, the trade networks had a larger impact on the Persian civilizations. 1.Explain the basics of Zoroastrianism. How did it shape Persian cutlure? How did Persian culture shape it? Zoroastrianism is a religion that influenced the development of Christianity and Manichaeism. It believes in the role of individuals determining their own fate and emphasizes the duality of good and evil. Early Aryan influences on Persian religious traditions. Zarathustra (late 7th-early 6th centuries BCE) is the founder of Zoroastrianism. He believes that Ahura Mazda had chosen him to be a prophet. In the sixth century BCE, Zoroastrianism attracted Persian aristocrats and ruling elites. It also influenced Judaism, Christianity and later, Islam. When Alexander of Macedonia defeated Darius III in battle, Alexander conquered most of the Persian territories. This caused Zoroastrianism to receive a huge blow since many priests were killed and texts were destroyed. Most Zoroastrians in Persia during this time fled to India to escape prosecution. 1.Compare the political method(s) that allowed the Seleucids, Parthians, and Sasanids to maintain strong imperial rule. The Seleucus inherited most of Achaemenid when Alexander died. They retained the Achaemenid system of administration The Parthians, based in Iran, extend to Mesopotamia. They were seminomadic Parthians that drove the Seleucus out of Iran. They had a federated governmental structure and had especially strong cavalry:

Logistics Pharmaceutical Challenges in South Africa Free Essays

Logistics challenges facing pharmaceutical industries in South Africa Introduction South Africa is the most developed country in Africa and reflected from it being selected to host the 2010 soccer world cup it has resulted in an economic boost for the country. The largest service providers in South Africa are listed: * DHL * Schenker * K? hne Nagel * Expeditor * Hellmann Safcor Panalpina * Micor * Megafreight * R? hlig Grindrod Trade challenges South Africa exports their goods mostly to Germany, Great Britain, Netherlands, Japan and the Unites states of America, and the imports list of South Africa is largely Germany as the top importing nation of South Africa then following is China, United States of America, Japan and Saudi Arabia. Transport infrastructure in African countries including South Africa is in poor conditions which causes ships in the harbours – which have insufficient infrastructure – to have to wait for a number f days before they can unload their goods. We will write a custom essay sample on Logistics Pharmaceutical Challenges in South Africa or any similar topic only for you Order Now International nations who manufacture pharmaceutical goods for South Africa endure difficulties as they reach their capacity limits wasting a lot of time and slowing the supply chain. There are various challenges in South Africa and highlighted are challenges such as desert regions in the country, the high mountain ranges and rain forests in South Africa serve as challenges in the logistics supply and value chain of the country Pharmaceutical industries in perspective of complex networks in terms of manufacturers of pharmaceuticals, dispensers and distributors are rated as relatively well-developed and sufficient change has taken place from the challenges faced by the country. Challenges in the logistics perspective Importing goods into South Africa is made challenging because of the poor conditions the roads are that travelling is done on and another challenge is the South African ports and suppliers in terms of the distances between the two in various destinations northerly making it difficult to both drivers and transport equipment to reach their destination timely and effectively. Low standard facilities is what many of the countries border posts have and services offered are not done efficiently by officials because they do not possess the necessary skills required. With perspective of logistics fees the challenge of eliminating perversities in the calculation of logistics fees and according to PIASA the logistics fee issue remains unresolved as well as the dispensing fee on medicine. The low level/shortage of human resources is an additional concern within the pharmaceutical industry, Changes in the ordering patterns causes delivery windows to shorten. â€Å"Express logistics has always been indispensible in eliminating waste of time, money and products in the chain. † (M, Latif. Finished products and distribution manager – BE-Tabs) Therefore pharmaceutical companies need special handling and general cargo being segregated. Another challenge faced by the logistics perspective of the pharmaceutical industry is the uncertainty about the economy’s future pricing regulations which causes wholesalers to hold stock being increasingly reluctant, opting for less valued choices as well as for more frequent shipments, and in order to maintain efficiency and gather up resources to facilitate the peak of credit terms being extended means both manufacturer and service provider have to work closely together. In most pharmaceutical companies such as BE-Tabs the supply chain is kept functional to cater and meet the availability of final goods and affordability of those goods to meet expectations of the government and end-users. According to the pharmaceutical industry’s logistics it is a challenge to be overcome at all times to keep the cold chain intact for the many sensitive products in the supply chain, and just as important to maintain a viable and accurate information chain within the supply chain. How to cite Logistics Pharmaceutical Challenges in South Africa, Papers Logistics Pharmaceutical Challenges in South Africa Free Essays Logistics challenges facing pharmaceutical industries in South Africa Introduction South Africa is the most developed country in Africa and reflected from it being selected to host the 2010 soccer world cup it has resulted in an economic boost for the country. The largest service providers in South Africa are listed: * DHL * Schenker * K? hne Nagel * Expeditor * Hellmann Safcor Panalpina * Micor * Megafreight * R? hlig Grindrod Trade challenges South Africa exports their goods mostly to Germany, Great Britain, Netherlands, Japan and the Unites states of America, and the imports list of South Africa is largely Germany as the top importing nation of South Africa then following is China, United States of America, Japan and Saudi Arabia. Transport infrastructure in African countries including South Africa is in poor conditions which causes ships in the harbours – which have insufficient infrastructure – to have to wait for a number f days before they can unload their goods. We will write a custom essay sample on Logistics Pharmaceutical Challenges in South Africa or any similar topic only for you Order Now International nations who manufacture pharmaceutical goods for South Africa endure difficulties as they reach their capacity limits wasting a lot of time and slowing the supply chain. There are various challenges in South Africa and highlighted are challenges such as desert regions in the country, the high mountain ranges and rain forests in South Africa serve as challenges in the logistics supply and value chain of the country Pharmaceutical industries in perspective of complex networks in terms of manufacturers of pharmaceuticals, dispensers and distributors are rated as relatively well-developed and sufficient change has taken place from the challenges faced by the country. Challenges in the logistics perspective Importing goods into South Africa is made challenging because of the poor conditions the roads are that travelling is done on and another challenge is the South African ports and suppliers in terms of the distances between the two in various destinations northerly making it difficult to both drivers and transport equipment to reach their destination timely and effectively. Low standard facilities is what many of the countries border posts have and services offered are not done efficiently by officials because they do not possess the necessary skills required. With perspective of logistics fees the challenge of eliminating perversities in the calculation of logistics fees and according to PIASA the logistics fee issue remains unresolved as well as the dispensing fee on medicine. The low level/shortage of human resources is an additional concern within the pharmaceutical industry, Changes in the ordering patterns causes delivery windows to shorten. â€Å"Express logistics has always been indispensible in eliminating waste of time, money and products in the chain. † (M, Latif. Finished products and distribution manager – BE-Tabs) Therefore pharmaceutical companies need special handling and general cargo being segregated. Another challenge faced by the logistics perspective of the pharmaceutical industry is the uncertainty about the economy’s future pricing regulations which causes wholesalers to hold stock being increasingly reluctant, opting for less valued choices as well as for more frequent shipments, and in order to maintain efficiency and gather up resources to facilitate the peak of credit terms being extended means both manufacturer and service provider have to work closely together. In most pharmaceutical companies such as BE-Tabs the supply chain is kept functional to cater and meet the availability of final goods and affordability of those goods to meet expectations of the government and end-users. According to the pharmaceutical industry’s logistics it is a challenge to be overcome at all times to keep the cold chain intact for the many sensitive products in the supply chain, and just as important to maintain a viable and accurate information chain within the supply chain. How to cite Logistics Pharmaceutical Challenges in South Africa, Essay examples

Global Strategy and Leadership of Telstra †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theGlobal Strategy and Leadership of Telstra. Answer: Introduction Telstra is a telecommunication and information services provider organization, which is based in Australia. It is providing various services, like; business services, internet access and fixed line services. It is a market leader in Australian telecommunication industry. The organization has adopted different effective strategies for maintaining its position in market. This report examines the strategic analysis and leadership styles of the leader at Telstra. The strategic analysis is conducted by examining the generic strategies and using SWOT analysis. Generic Strategy There are three generic strategies, such as; cost leadership, product differentiation and focus, which are used to gain competitive advantage in market. In order to improve its position in industry, Telstra is aiming on the youth and student market to offer the mobile and information technology products and other value added services. It has focused on differentiation and cost leadership. It is combining the uniqueness and broad target and providing best network and quality services (Bilbao-Osorio, Dutta Lanvin, 2013). It is offering the products to youth and students at affordable prices by using different cost saving technologies. SWOT analysis: Strengths The major strengths of Telstra are that it is one of the largest brands in Australia and it dominates the telecommunication and information service market in the country. It has the latest technology on mobile phones, i.e. Next G Network and broadband service, i.e. ADSL 2 Plus to fight with other competitors. Company is working with more than 35000 employees, who are serving the customers of 230 countries. It is actively sponsoring various sports events (Telstra, 2016). Weaknesses Telstra is not expanding its business operations internationally and limiting its growth strategy. The prices of products and services are comparatively higher than other competitors. It is making emphasis on postpaid plans rather than prepaid plans (Bartholomeusz, 2017). This company has decreased fixed line advertising and it has invested that amount on the promotion of new products like; Next G Network. The company has limited liquidity position. Threats One of the major threats for Telstra Company is market saturation in Australia. It means the mobile phone market in Australia has nearly reached to the saturation. There are changes in the customer behavior, i.e. it will find very difficult to compete for creating new customers. Technology changes are posing threats to the company (SP, 2017). Telstra has so many competitors, who are posing fierce competition for this company. There are very strict regulations in this sector in different areas like; price control, licensing, interconnection, agreements and use of infrastructure. Telstra needs to disassemble all the regulatory problems to enter in global markets. Opportunities There are so many opportunities for the company in this industry. Telstra can expand its business to international markets, like; China and Asia Pacific. The internet users in China country has been reached to 298 million up at high of 43%. The rate of internet penetration in China is at 22% that is very low and there is scope of improvement (Garca-Ochoa Mayor Bajo Dav, 2016). The internet market in China can improve the growth of company seeing from its expansion in present. Moreover, there is an increasing demand of smartphones and tablets and high speed broadband services all over Asia. Apart from this, this company can look at other alternatives but related business operations and pull its existing competencies to start new business ventures (Telstra, 2016). Telstra is the contracted data supplier of Australian government. By an initiative of government, it expanded its CDMA network to the rural population. So, the organization has most extensive CDMA networks in the Australia c ountry. Leadership The leadership team of Telstra feels very proud to be the part of one of the largest telecommunication company. The Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Telstra, i.e. Andy Penn played his leadership role effectively. He is reshaping the team of senior executives continuously. He is including latest appointments offering a vision into his ambitions and priorities. As a senior leader, he knows how to build the organizational capabilities. He continues to play a significant role in increasing awareness of the role, which theproject management plays in implementing the organizational strategy. Andy Penn focuses on different leadership areas, for example; customer focus, personal leadership, results leadership and strategic leadership. As a leader of Telstra, he plays an important role in creating scenario of success in organization. Andy Penn is a pragmatic leader, who is practical thinker (Rothaermel, 2015). He has a strong interest in making strategy and focus on different strategies, which are used for completing any task, goal and initiative. He thinks that most of the companies either gets succeed or fail on the basis of their ability to implement strategy well. He executes the strategies by focusing on the customers. He is focusing on making good relationships with his team and building trust together. The top priority of Telstras CEO is to figure out that how his team is going to complete the tasks (Telstra, 2016). This style can be linked with transformational leadership. According to the public report and investors report, the CEO of Telstra company has effectively managed the employees and customers and he was able to align strategies with its overall objectives. Appropriateness of leadership It can be concluded that the leadership at Telstra was effective (Waterhouse, 2015). The CEO of the company played an effective leadership role. He is the person, who is responsible for Telstras effective strategy and other actions, for example; treasury, mergers and acquisitions, corporate planning, internal audit, external reporting, reporting and analysis and expansion of its business operations internationally (Northouse, 2015). All these aspects show that he played his leadership role effectively and able to attain predetermined objectives. Feedback The report is formed using various resources, like; books, journals, Telstras website and annual report of the company. For conducting the SWOT analysis, telecom industry and its other players are examined. Annual report and investors report of the company assisted in incorporating all the details in this report. Conclusion Thus, the above analysis shows the company is having better positive in the telecom industry in Australia. The company is using differentiation and cost leadership strategy. To overcome its weaknesses and threats, it should focus on the technology changes and competitive environment. It will help he organization in ruling the market for a long term. The company should conduct the research and development process to know about the products and demands in the market and then produce the products with new features. References Bilbao-Osorio, B., Dutta, S., Lanvin, B. (2013, April). The global information technology report 2013. InWorld Economic Forum(pp. 1-383). Bartholomeusz, S. (2017). Telstra leadership shake-up shows the scale of Penns ambitions. The Australian Business Review. Garca-Ochoa Mayor, M., Bajo Dav, N. (2016). Competitive advantages of the mobile phone operators in the Asia Pacific region: analysis from the strategic groups approach.Technology Analysis Strategic Management,28(5), 541-554. Northouse, P. G. (2015).Leadership: Theory and practice. Sage publications. Rothaermel, F. T. (2015).Strategicmanagement. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. SP. (2017). Telstra Corporation Ltd. SWOT and PESTLE Analysis. Retrieved from https://www.swotandpestle.com/telstra/. Telstra. (2016). Telstra Annual Report, 2016. Retrieved from https://telstra2016ar.interactiveinvestorreports.com/. Waterhouse, J. (2015). Who is Telstras new CEO, Andrew Penn. Retrieved from https://exchange.telstra.com.au/who-is-telstras-new-ceo-andrew-penn/.

Inequality Causes and Consequences

Introduction The 21st century has been characterized by an emphasis on democracy and an upholding of the principle of equality which holds that selection is on a basis of merit.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Inequality: Causes and Consequences specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Equality of opportunity has been pursued with the view of ensuring equal opportunity to all the members of the society. Despite this emphasis on equality, today’s world continues to be plagued by many social inequalities among people. Wilkinson (2005, p.51) suggests that social inequality is positively related to social vices such as homicide and racism and inevitably fosters social instability. With this recognition, many governments have sought ways to reduce social inequality in their respective countries. Many political systems have been formulated in a bid to overcome social inequalities with the aim being to eliminate social inequalities by distributing resources in an equitable manner among the members of the society. Considering the significance that the issue of social inequality holds for the well being of the society, it makes sense to explore the subject of social inequality and highlight its causes. This paper shall set out to report on Social Inequality: causes and consequences. This shall be in a bid to provide a better appreciation of the issue thereby leading to an enhanced understanding of social inequality and how it affects the society. Causes of Social Inequality While the 21st century has witnessed an increase in the access to education for most people, education still remains to be a cause for inequality. This is because the quality of the education offered depends on the context of the school or class. The reason for this is that different schools will therefore offer different qualities of education for varied reasons. Duru-Bellat (2004, p.47) reveals that school have unequal effectiv eness especially in countries where there is no minimum level of quality guaranteed. Another effect of education is that it influences a person’s social capital. Social capital is defined as â€Å"a person’s potential to activate and effectively mobilize a network of social connection on mutual recognition of proximity† (OECD, 2001, p.2). Social capital can be uses as private goods by an individual to achieve certain goals. An individual can use his/her accumulated social capital to from this social capital. This inequality is linked by social proximities where people cluster themselves into groups based on some common property.Advertising Looking for report on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Careers and jobs have also become a source of status distinction among people. Studies also indicate that the returns to skill (measure of the difference in earnings between more-skilled and less-skil led workers) have changed radically over the past 3 decades. From the 1980s, there was a heightened increase in the wage differential in the labor market (Ryscavage 1999, p.115). The main differentiating factors were by education or experience. Emphasis on education resulted in higher institutes of learning graduates earning more than similar workers who had only high school diplomas. Due to this shift, higher wages are paid to workers who are more skilled or occupy management and administrative positions than to workers involved in the manual section of the organization. It follows logically that income gaps attributed to education levels are significant since only a small proportion of the population get to pursue the highest levels of education. This observation implies that children of poorer parents are less likely to become rich in future than children of richer parents. Globalization has resulted in increased social inequality in developed nations. Globalization is a process characterized by major integration of economies and cultures. This trend is becoming rife and with it a shift in the way business and societies operate. Fligstein (2002, p.206) suggests that globalization is more of a gradual process whose impacts on economies are less revolutionary in nature. One of the outcomes of globalization is mass immigration as people move in search of job opportunities and better income. The immigrants and their children are disadvantaged as a result of â€Å"unequal distance† which exists between their native language and the language of their host country. Duru-Bellat (2004, p.33) asserts that the institutes in the home country are permeated by the culture of dominant groups and therefore, only those who inherit this culture can perform well. Another cause of social inequality is social stratification which is characterized by grouping people into different social classes. Some people in society are given more power and freedom as a result of their social class. Class stratification results in the society dividing itself into different classes of people mostly on the basis of economic wellbeing. The members of different classes have varying access to resources and power therefore creating a rift between the various classes. Dragos and Leskosek (2003) rightfully state that individuals with various characteristics do not start their lives in neutral or unstructured environments but rather, they are flung by education or even birth into various social spaces. These social spaces in some instances determine the opportunities that are available to them and therefore their achievements later in life.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Inequality: Causes and Consequences specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Social inequality also occurs as a result of the gender of a person. The cause of this kind of inequality is mostly as a result of the dual roles of paid and unpai d workers that most women play in a capitalistic world. Male dominance results in women playing second roles since gendered job segregation results in males maintaining superiority over the women (Goldthorpe, 2009). In some countries, women are considered second class citizens and their economic options are significantly decreased therefore making them dependent on the men. Consequences Research suggests that social inequality may be a significant determinant of health. This is mainly because inequality results to a great difference in access to resources across the community which results in greater differences in health across communities. Health care acquisition thereby becomes almost an unattainable affair for the low earners since the cost of health care and a healthy lifestyle becomes more expensive in the community. Berkman and Kawachi (2000) articulate that social inequality leads to lack of solidarity and social cohesion thereby dramatically decreasing life expectancy also, the socioeconomic position of an individual has a direct relationship to their risk of heart disease and other lifestyle related illnesses. These assertions borrow from the psychosocial environment interpretations which theorize that inequality produces a social environment that ultimately affects the individual’s health. The linkage between inequality and crime is especially troubling. Yoonseok and Donggyun (2008) hypothesized that, as the income distribution becomes more bipolarized, the interaction between the two groups from the different sides of the income divide is further minimized. This in turn lowers both the expected future income of the poorer and their incentive to supply labor in the legal labor market is thus weakened. Findings indicate that the crime incentive for the richer is far lower due to high income while it remains heightened for the poorer (Yoonseok and Donggyun 2008). This is because individuals feel more frustrated when they belong to the low incom e group than high income group. This leads to antagonism by the low earners to the high earners which lead to the propagation of crime. Wilkinson (2005) also asserts that the relationship between inequality and violence is a robust one and poverty is independently associated with higher levels of violence. In recent years, studies to indicate the effects of income inequality have been sanctioned. It contended that inequality may hinder the economic growth of a nation (Boix, 2009). In the earlier days, income inequality was indeed a sign of economic growth since it marked the population shift from rural to urban with the urban population earning higher. As such, it was seen as a necessary condition of economic takeoff.Advertising Looking for report on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More However, Boix (2009) proposes that inequality leads to redistributive demands in the form of heavier tax burdens and lack of incentives for investors which lead to the slowing down of growth. In addition to this, inequality leads to instability to the political system which becomes characterized by riots, assassinations and even outbreak of civil wars. This state discourages investments thereby further plunging a nation into reduced earning. However, not all the consequences of social inequality are negative in nature and this inequality may result in progress in the society. Bernasek, an economic reporter for the New York Times contends that the effects of income inequality are not inherently adverse (Bernasek, 2006). She asserts that without inequality, there would be no motivation for anyone to earn more than the rest of the people. However, given the many adverse effects that sprout from social inequality, the virtue of inequality as a motivating factor seems to pale in comparis on. Dragos and Leskosek (2003) go as far as to state that social inequality should not be tolerated by any society since they go against the notion of benefiting everyone and results in disharmony. There is therefore a pressing need to come up with means that alleviate the gap in income thereby leading to a more harmonic society. Conclusion Inequality has been universally acknowledged as a major roadblock in the way for economic and social prosperity. This paper set out to outline the causes of social inequality and the consequences that arise from it. To this end, the paper has articulated the issue of social inequality that faces both developing and developed nations alike. The evidence presented herein suggests that globalization, education and a social stratification are some of the major causes of social inequality. From this paper, it is clear that social inequality has many negative impacts on the society. With recognition that social inequality results in gross injustices, s olutions should be looked for to address the problem. Whereas social equality may never be completely attained, increasing equality is an achievable goal that can be attained should the governments and other relevant institutes diligently measures to deal with the causes of inequality that have been outlined in this paper. A more equitable community will not only be harmonious but will also lead to more industrial growth hence a higher standard of living for most members of the society. References Boix, C 2009, The Conditional Relationship Between Inequality and Development, PS, Political Science Politics: Research Library Core, ProQuest. Dragos, S Leskosek, V 2003, Social Inequality and social capital. Institute for contemporary Social and Political Studies. Duru-Bellat, M 2004, Social inequality at school and educational policies, UNESCO: International Institute for Educational Planning. Fligstein, N 2002, The Architecture of Markets: An Economic Sociology of Twenty-first-Centur y Capitalist Societies, Princeton University Press. Goldthorpe, J 2009, â€Å"Analysing Social Inequality: A Critique of Two Recent Contributions from Economics and Epidemiology†, European Sociological Review, DOI:10.1093/esr/jcp046 OECD, 2001, The Well-being of Nations: The Role of Human and Social Capital. OECD Publishing. Ryscavage, Paul. â€Å"Income inequality in America: an analysis of trends† USA: M.W. Sharpe, 1999. Print. Wilkinson, G 2005, The Impact of Inequality: How to Make Sick Societies Healthier, Routledge. Yoonseok, L, Donggyun S, What Aspect of the Income Distribution Matters in the Crime Model?. Web. This report on Inequality: Causes and Consequences was written and submitted by user Kelly E. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. 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The Fastest Way to Find Money to Write

The Fastest Way to Find Money to Write Got you on the edge of your seat, right? Everyone loves to find money, and in this business, so few people make much of it. I just returned from a conference where publishers and agents alike warned the attendees not to quit their day jobs because the competition is just so fierce. I appeared on three panels at PubSense 2015 in Charleston, South Carolina: One on promotion, one as an example of a small press success, and the third, which I moderated, on funding. My favorite topic. Sowhat was the hot topic of both the panel and the crowd when it came to finding money? Crowdfunding. Some people deflate thinking about the effort of crowdfunding, but it is 1) You set the bar as to how much you need. 2) You establish the rewards to those who donate to your cause. 3) You choose the crowdfunding site/platform that best suits your taste. 4) You are not judged 5) You develop a platform of ambassadors, followers, and fans during the process. 6) You become respected as an entrepreneur. 7) You might become discovered or picked up Projects to post and request money for? First of all, you dont say you need money to live on. Instead, you might show how you are soliciting funds for: 1) Research 2) Travel 3) Cover, editing, formatting 4) Public speaking 5) Performances 6) Part Charity in affiliation with the subject of your book 7) Raising awareness of a subject And if you dont like asking for money for a project? Many people dont like holding their hand out. Then consider using the platform to ask for pre-orders of your book. Hey! Thats not painful at all. My favorite crowdfunding sites: 1) Pubslush.com 2) Kickstarter.com 3) Indiegogo.com

Medical Negligence and Malpractice Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Medical Negligence and Malpractice - Case Study Example There were no laws specifying requirements to practice any profession and anyone could practice whatever profession he or she wished to. As a result, there was tremendous competition between physicians and other healers. The only way the public could hold a person responsible for his actions were through tort laws. However, malpractice litigation can exist only with an established practice and a healer cannot be sued for deviating from standards if no standards exist. Since only trained physicians had professional standards, they were sued and quacks were not. There are five fundamental groupings of rationales for medical malpractice. First, a physician "contracts with those who employ him that he has such skill, science, and information as will enable him properly and judiciously to perform the duties of his calling." Second, "the principle is plain of uniform application, that when a person assumes the profession of physician and surgeon, he must, in its exercise, be held to employ a reasonable amount of care and skill. For anything short of that degree of skill in his practice, the law will hold him responsible for any injury which results from its absence (Breen et al, 1997). Third, a physician "undertakes that he will bring to the work a fair, reasonable and competent degree of care and skill in reference to the operation to be performed." Fourth, "freedom from errors of judgement is never a part of a contract with a professional man." And finally, physicians need not guarantee a cure. These principles led to increased malpractice lawsuits against better physicians. Although medical malpractice is founded on the standard principles of tort law, interest groups perceive medical malpractice differently depending on the way malpractice claims affect their financial, social, political, and professional interests. Differences in perception among politically perceptive interest groups have been significant obstacles in resolving malpractice problems. Articles su pporting and opposing the medical malpractice system have appeared in newspapers and magazines. Opponents of malpractice cite malpractice cost as a cause of high health care costs. Opponents argue that the medical malpractice system modifies the doctor and patient relationship and creates an environment in which defensive strategies influence treatment decisions (Fielding and Waitzkin, 1999). Opponents also claim that damage awards are like winnings in a lottery and provide unscrupulous lawyers and patients incentives to sue the providers. The costs of defending malpractice lawsuits and damage awards are increasing the cost of medical treatment. The costs of defensive medicine are increasing medical costs and making medical care unaffordable. Compensation for medical injuries is a paramount goal of medical malpractice actions (Hay, 1992). Compensation should be timely, fair, and paid to all who qualify for it. To be timely, compensation should be paid expeditiously. To be fair, compensation should be proportional to the amount of loss. However, it is important to determine what injuries will be compensated. The system could compensate all injuries regardless of cause, or medically caused injuries only or negligent medical injuries only. Using the concept of quality costs, malpractice costs can be divided into injury costs and